At the scene of a violent crime, the examining officer is likely to see blood and evidence of other bodily fluids. These can tell a lot about what happened, not only about details of how the crime was committed, but also about the persons involved.
These days, nearly everyone knows his or her basic blood type, whether it is A, B, AB, or 0, and Rhesus negative or positive. This categorising of blood into types was first made by Austrian physiologist Karl Landsteiner at the end of the 19th century. In his experiments, he took small amounts of blood and separated the red cells from the liquid, called the serum. He did this by spinning the blood at high speed in a centrifuge. Then he took the serum and added red cells from different people. They acted in two different ways: either the cells mixed with the serum, or they clumped together (clotted), (“agglutinated”).
A number of attempts at blood transfusion had been made in the past, but this observation explained for the first time why so many had failed. When introduced blood was not of exactly the same type as that in the body, it resulted in the clumping of red cells, and the patient died. Quick tests of blood samples to discover whether agglutination will happen is now made prior to a transfusion being made.
DIVIDING BLOOD INTO GROUPS
Red blood cells contain substances called antigens. Antigens help create antibodies which fight infection and disease. Landsteiner suggested that his experiment showed the presence of two specific antigens, which he labeled A and B. The discovery of these antigens caused him to divide human blood into four basic groups:
Group A: antigen A present; antigen B absent
Group B: antigen A absent; antigen B present
Group AB: both antigens A and B present
Group 0: both antigens absent
The particular blood group of an individual depends on the genetic inheritance from both parents. Known as ABO typing, it has been used, for example, to identify the biological father in a paternity case. How common each group is can vary from one national population to another. In the United States, for example, the relative proportions of ABO groups are roughly 39 percent A, 13 percent B, 43 percent 0, and 5 percent AB.
In 1927, Landsteiner found two other antigen types, labeling their occurrence as M, N, and MN. In 1940, working in the United States, he and A.S. Wiener discovered the Rhesus factor, named after the Rhesus monkeys they used in their investigations. Since then, other researchers have introduced more than a dozen further group systems. Different proteins and enzymes associated with specific blood groups have also been identified.
WHAT THIS MEANS FOR FORENSICS
The ability to identify blood type is an excellent means for revealing important evidence in a forensic investigation. If, for example, a victim’s ABO type is 0, and bloodstains of this type are found on clothing of a suspect whose type is A, there is a likelihood that they have come from the victim.
Making use of the many other blood typing systems now available, this probability can be increased greatly. If blood of type O occurs in 43% of the population, the substance haptoglobin-2 in 36% of these, and the enzyme PGM-2 in five percent, then the probability of an individual having these three blood types together is 43 x 36 x 5 = 7,740 in 1 million. In other words, around eight people in every thousand will have this specific type of blood. It is still insufficient to obtain a conviction on this evidence alone, but it can help to narrow the group of suspects.
In 1925, another important discovery was made. Around 80 percent of humans are ‘secretors’. This means their saliva, urine, perspiration, and semen contain the same substances as their blood, and can be used for typing in a similar way. In 1940, two British researchers discovered that it was possible to distinguish between female and male body cells, particularly the white blood cells and those of the lining of the mouth. Blood typing has now become so precise that recently one scientist showed that he could distinguish between the blood of his twin daughters, who were genetically identical, because one had suffered from chicken pox and the other hadn’t.
SPLASHES OF BLOOD
At the scene of a violent homicidal attack, blood may be present in considerable quantities. Not only will it be on the victim, but also on the weapon and the surroundings. Indoors, the floors, walls, and even the ceilings may be splashed. Careful observation of these bloodstains can provide valuable clues about what took place. Bloodstains and splashes are classified into six basic types.
Round drops are found on horizontal surfaces; depending on the height from which they fell, they can spray out into a starlike shape. Splashes of blood are shaped like an exclamation mark; they show that blood has flown through the air and hit a surface at an angle. While a victim is still alive, spurts of blood result from the pumping action of the heart. A major artery can spray blood a great distance.
Pools of blood form around the body of a bleeding victim. If there is more than one pool, he either crawled, or was dragged, from one spot to another before dying. Smears are likely also found in this case. Trails are left when a bloody corpse is moved. There will be drops if the body was carried, and smears if it was dragged.
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